The 1947 Independence Act of India specified that suzerainty of the British Crown over the 565 princely states would end with effect from 15 August 1947. This left the decision to remain independent or accede to either Pakistan or India, with the ruler of each state. The states which did not decide to join India were illegally politico-militarily threatened and coerced or out-rightly invaded and captured by Indian Army, leading to a complex and often tragic integration into the Indian Union.
Jammu and Kashmir: The Jammu and Kashmir state experienced one of the earliest conflicts. The invasion of Kashmir was launched in the month of July 1947 by Indian Sikh Jathas and Indian Hindu hardliners with intimate support of the State Forces of Alwar, Kapurthala, Patiala and Kashmir. In Jammu region alone, over 250,000 men, women and children were ruthlessly killed and over 500,000 Muslims were ethnically cleansed and forced out of their homes. The Indian Hindu and Sikh Jathas invaded Kashmir, much before the intervention of tribal lashkars, much before the so-called letter of accession was signed and Indian forces illegally occupied Kashmir.
Junagarh: on 15 September 1947, the Junagarh state acceded to Pakistan. The instrument of Accession was accepted by Pakistan on 16 September. The Indian Army however, encircled the state enforcing a complete blockade. Mountbatten arranged for an agreement under which the fate of Junagarh was to be determined by a UN supervised referendum. Without waiting for it, the Indian Army illegally invaded and occupied the state of Junagarh on 1 November 1947, preempting any democratic resolution.
Manavadar: On 14 September 1947, the state of Manavadar acceded to Pakistan. On 22 October 1947, India illegally invaded Manavadar and placed the ruler under house arrest and captured Manavadar illegally.
Hyderabad: Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII, the Nizam of Hyderabad, chose to maintain Hyderabad’s independence and sought to preserve self-governance within the state. On 17 September 1948, Indian Army invaded the state of Hyderabad. Around 40,000 Muslim men, women and children were massacred in the aftermath of Indian Army’s invasion. The killings were accompanied by widespread atrocities, including rape, abduction of women, looting, arson, desecration of mosques, forced conversions, and the seizure of homes and lands.
Travancore: In June 1947, Travancore chose to remain independent rather than join the Indian Union. Indian Government attempted to coerce the Prime Minster Sir CP Ramaswamy Iyer to retract his statement and on his refusal an attempt was made on his life which forced him to resign. Subsequently, the King of Travancore was forced to accede to the Indian Union in 1949, under the intimidation of imminent military intervention.
Jodhpur: Early in August 1947, Maharaja Hanwant Singh of Jodhpur met Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah in Delhi and expressed his desire to join Pakistan. The Quaid accepted Maharaja’s conditions of joining Pakistan. Mountbatten, Sardar Patel and VP Menon however, continued to coerce the Maharaja to change his opinion. During a discussion with VP Menon, the Maharaja pulled out his pistol and even threatened to shoot Menon ‘Like a Dog’. Through extreme threats and strong-arm measures, the Maharaja of Jodhpur was forced to change his opinion and signed the accession to join Republic of India.
Bhopal: The Nawab of Bhopal, a proponent of independence, did not sign the instrument of accession to Republic of India on 15 August 1947 and continued to remain a separate unit. Republic of India, through unrelenting and coercive political interference and threats forced the Nawab to sign the instrument of accession on 30 April 1949.
Manipur: On 28 August, 1947 the independence and sovereignty of Manipur was declared by the Political Agent Mr Gerald Pakenham Stewart, and he handed over Manipur to Maharaja Bodhchandra Singh at a special function. Elections were held in Manipur in 1948 and State Assembly held its inauguration session on 18 October 1948. In September 1949, Republic of India invited Maharaja Bodhchandra to Shillong in Assam and asked him to agree to accession with India. The Maharaja however refused to join India and was arrested by Indian Army. He was forced to sign the Merger Agreement and the State of Manipur was thus occupied by Republic of India.
Dadra and Nagar Haveli: In 1954 Indian Army supported by hardline Hindu organization that included Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), invaded and captured the Portuguese territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli.
Daman and Diu: In 1961, Indian Army’s 1 Maratha Light Infantry attacked and captured the Portuguese territory of Daman. In a similar operation, 20 Rajput and 4 Madras attacked and captured the Portuguese territory of Diu.
Goa: In 1961, Indian Armed Forces comprising 17 Infantry Division and 50 PARA Brigade ofIndian Army, duly supported by Western Air Command of Indian Air Force and two War Ships of Indian Navy attacked and captured the Portuguese territory of Goa.
Sikkim: Sikkim decided to remain an independent state after the British departed in August 1947. In 1973, Indian Army invaded and captured Sikkim and remained as an occupying power until 1975, after which Sikkim was forcibly integrated into the Republic of India, ending the 333-year-old Namgyal Dynasty with the ousting of the last Chogyal, Palden Thondup Namgyal.
Nagaland: Nagaland declared its independence on 14 August 1947. In a subsequent referendum, 99 percent of the Naga people voted to secede from India, but this decision was swiftly rejected by the New Delhi government. In 1953, the Indian Army invaded and forcibly occupied Nagaland.
Tripura: Tripura was never part of British India. After the death of Bir Bikram, the last independent king, on 17 May 1947, and with the British departure three months later, the political situation became fluid. India took advantage of this instability to annex Tripura. Indian agents circulated rumors that Muslim refugees from neighboring East Pakistan were plotting to merge Tripura with Pakistan. As a result, the Queen of Tripura was coerced into signing the Tripura Merger Agreement with the Republic of India on 15 October 1949.
The process of integrating princely states into the newly independent India was marked by a series of complex, often tumultuous events. From coerced accessions and military invasions to instances of brutal violence and political plots, the journey was far from smooth. The stories of Jammu and Kashmir, Junagarh, Hyderabad, and many others reflect the intricate balance of power, ambition, and survival in a rapidly changing geopolitical landscape. These events have left a lasting impact on the subcontinent. As we look back on this turbulent period, it’s vital to recognize and appreciate the varied narratives and experiences that continue to impact the present and future of South Asia.
