Lahore unveiled: Chronicles of the conquest and resilience

Lahore is a major city in Pakistan, known for its rich history, vibrant culture, and diverse cuisine. It is the capital of Punjab province and is also renowned for its festivals, arts, music, and literature in Pakistan.
Lahore has withstood centuries of conquests and adversities, stands as a testament to unwavering resilience, where each invasion and era of turmoil has woven a rich tapestry of history, culture, and strength.
Origin of name of Lahore: The origin of Lahore is attributed to myths and tales. Most of the historians trace the origin of name of Lahore to Prince Loh, son of Rama, hero of epic of Ramayana. Lahore has been written and pronounced differently in the past such as Lahor, Lahavur, Lohur, Laohur, Lovhur, Lohavur, Lauhavar, Lohar Kot, Lohur, Lahanor, Lohavar, Luhuvar, Lavpor, Loh-Kot, Laha-nur, etc.
Lauhavar: Abu Rihan al Biruni, who resided in India and speaks from personal knowledge of the country at the time of Mahmud’s invasion at the beginning of the 11th century, in his celebrated work Tarikhul Hind, mentions Lahore as “Lauhavar”, which is not a city but a territory whose capital was Mandahukur.
Lohar Kot: Shaikh Ahmad Zanjani wrote a treatise Tuhfatul Wasilin in 435 AH/1043 AD has remarked that Lahore was founded by Raja Parichhit (also written as Parikshit), who was a great Raja from descendants of Pandavas. The town was also called as Samand Pal Nagari when Raja Samand Pal succeeded the throne. After many successors, the town was finally in control of Raja Lohar Chand, who discarded the name of Samand Pal Nagari and named it “LoharKot” after his own name.
Lohur: Kashmir Gardizi, the author of Zainul Akhbar, 440 AH/1048 AD wrote on page 79 that Mahmud attacked Kashmir in 412 and besieged the fortress of Loharkot. He stayed there for a month, but as the fort was exceptionally high and strong so he could not capture it and proceeded towards Lohur and Takishar.
Lahanor: Sayyid Ali Hajviri, a mystic saint and scholar of the 11th century lived in Lahore for a considerable number of years remarks in his book Kashful Mahjub in 500 AH/1106 AD that he has become captive among the congenial folk in the town of Lahanor which is a dependency of Multan.
Lohavar: Abul Fazl Muhammad Hussain Baihaqi, a famous Persian historian of the 11th century has written in his book Tarikh-e-Baihaqi, mentions Lahore as Lohavar along with the fort of Mandkakur, a variation of the name of the place which is mentioned by Al-Biruni as the capital of province of Lahore.
Lahavar: Al-Idrisi, one of the eminent Arab geographers of Sibta, who composed his famous system of geography Nuzhatul Mushtaq fi Ikhtiraqal Afaq which has been translated into Latin by several authors, names one of the towns of India as Lahavar.
Luhuvar: Sharafal Zaman Tahir Marvazi, an Iranian who was employed as a physician at the court of Malik Shah mentions Lahore in his book Tabail al hayawan in the beginning of 1100 AD as Luhuvar.
Lavpor: In the Deshv Bhag, compilation from the Puranas, drawn up order of the erudite Raja Jye Singh Siwae of Jyepore, Lahore is called Lavpor.
Loh-Kot: In the chronicles of Rajputana, Lahore is mentioned under the name of Loh-Kot
Laha-nur: Lahore appears as Laha-nur in the writings of Amir Khosrow.
Lohur: Masud Saad Salman, a Lahori persian poet who flourished in latter half of the eleventh century and beginning of the twelfth century very often refers Lahore in his Diwan but almost always gives it a different name, e.g. Lahavur, Lohur, Laohur, Lovhur, Lohavur and Lahore.
Hindu Dynasties of Ancient Lahore: Pre-Muslim Period: The origin of Lahore is lost in the mysteries of the past. Its early history is attributed only to tradition and mythical personages. Lahore was founded in 1000 BC by mythical Hindu Prince, Loh, son of Rama, King of Ayodha (Oude) and the hero of the Hindu epic Ramayana. His two sons, Lay or Loh and Kash are said to have founded the neighbouring cities of Lahore and Kasur. A subterranean Temple located in northern part of Lahore Fort is also associated with Prince Loh. Despite the fact that the name of Lahore has originated from the Hindu God, it has never been a major Hindu pilgrimage centre.
Virtually no historical reference of the city is available in travelogues; history books and archaeological excavations. Historical chronicles do not provide any account of such a city when Alexander’s forces traversed Punjab in 4th century BC. There could have been a small town or settlement of Hindu “Shahiya” dynasty at the place where modern day Lahore exists, and of which a little reference is available in the travelogue of Chinese traveler Hsieun Tsang who visited India in 630 A.D and remarked it as a Great Brahman City. Lahore remained the capital of a reigning Brahman family from 800 AD till 900 AD, though governed by the Governor of Multan.
In Raj Tarangini, Lahore is mentioned as dependency of Lalitaditya, the renowned sovereign of Kashmir. In Desh vi Bhaga, a compilation from the Puranas, it is recorded that at the end of the brazen age, Bhim Sen fought Ban Mal, Raja of Lahore, a mighty prince with an army of 10,000 horsemen and after a struggle of three days, took him prisoner and made his kingdom tributary. Some of these stories show the intimate connection of Lahore with semi-mythic period of Indian history.
The city of Lahore and river Ravi (ancient Iravati, Parushni of the Vedas or Greek Hydraotes) have always remained inseparable from each other. Although River Ravi has been changing its course westwards, but the nucleus of the town of Lahore has always been on its left bank. Today, however, the boundaries of the District City of Lahore extend over both banks.
Ghaznavids – First Muslim Rulers of Lahore: The location of Lahore in the fertile plains of the Punjab is, however, such that the land route from Central Asia to the heart of India or further south would usually let it play host to the northern invaders. Sabuktagin, Governor of Khorassan and father of Mahmud Ghaznavi of Ghazni advanced beyond the Indus in 975 CE. He was met by Jaipal, Raja of Lahore, whose dominion is said to have extended from Sirhand to Lamghan, and from Kashmir to Multan. The Raja formed an alliance with Afghans and with their aid, was enabled to withstand the first invasion of Sabuktagin. Sabuktagin repeated the invasion after his succession to the throne in 977 CE. A battle was fought at Lamghan and Raja Jaipal was defeated. Another battle ensued in 1001 CE, in which Jaipal was again vanquished, leaving the territory to the west of Indus. Chagrined at his double defeat, he performed the hindu sacrifice of Johar by burning himself to death outside walls of his capital, Lahore.
In 1008 CE, a confederation headed by Anangpal (also known as Anandpal), son of Jaipal, again met the advancing army, now commanded by Mahmud Ghaznavi, son and successor of Sabuktagin, in the vicinity of Peshawar. In this battle, the hindu army suffered great loss. Lahore was allowed to remain intact for thirteen years longer. Anangpal was succeeded by another Jaipal, called Nardjanpal while Mahmud Ghaznavi pushed his conquests into Hindustan.
In 1022 CE, Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni suddenly marched down from Kashmir and seized Lahore without opposition and gave it over to be plundered. Jaipal II fled helpless to Ajmer and the hindu principality of Lahore was extinguished forever. Malik Ayaz as the defecto Muslim governor of Lahore, appointed by Mahmud Ghaznavi rebuilt and repopulated the city and afterwards developed it into the capital of the Ghaznavid Empire of India. Under his rule, the city emerged as a main cultural and academic hub of north western India. He is said to have constructed a fortress, built up walls and added city gates to the city of Lahore. The tomb of Malik Ayaz can still be seen in the Rang Mahal commercial area of walled city.
It was during this period that Abul Hasan Ali al-Hujweri became the most famous resident of Ghazni to settle in Lahore, popularly known as Data Ganj Bakhsh (The Master Who Bestows Treasures), he is today revered as Pakistan’s most famous Sufi saint. His mausoleum, built after his death in 1077, is the most frequently visited Sufi shrine in the city. Hujweri had travelled widely like many Sufi saints, visiting Baghdad, Basra, Bukhara, Damascus, Bayt-al-Jinn (in Syria) and Khurasan, before settling in Lahore, where he established a khanqah which now adjoins his tomb.
During the reign of first eight princes of the Ghaznavid Dynasty in 1098-1160, Lahore was governed by Viceroys but during the reign of Musaud-II, the seat of Government was temporarily moved to Lahore as the Seljuks had deprived them from most of their territory in Iran and Turan.
By the end of the 11th century, Lahore and Ghazni were the two most important cities in Ghaznavid Sultanate. Their society and culture were almost identical but the advantage Lahore had over Ghazni was that when the former city faced its destruction, all the important families migrated and settled near and around the river Ravi. When the Ghaznavids were thrown out of Ghazni, Lahore was made the capital of Ghaznavid territory.
Ghaznavid ruler Khusru Shah died in Lahore in 1160 and his son Saraj ul Dola Khusru Malik became the next king who appears to have remained so until the fall of the dynasty in 1186. He was not a very competent ruler and Ghoris were taking over one city after another but he was a man who appreciated arts and crafts. People from Khurasan, Ghargistan (present day Kyrgyzstan) and Ghazni were migrating to Lahore because it was peaceful here. For the first time in the known history of Lahore, it got the status of a cultural hub and it was said that if Shiraz and Isfahan were united, they would not make one Lahore of the Ghaznavid period.
Lahore had a huge population during Ghaznavid period because at one time the citizens of Lahore provided an army of forty thousand soldiers. There were many foreigners in the army (Lashkar) as well. Soldiers who came from Ghazni, Ghor, Turkistan and other countries, did go back after earning lots of riches but some of them stayed back and this factor added another dimension of cultural life to the city. In fact, this mixture of locals and foreigners gave birth to the language of Urdu in Lahore that was called Lashkari Zuban (language of army).
Slave Dynasty/Delhi Sultanate Period – Period of Turmoil: Last Ghaznavid rulers were not as capable as their ancestors. Another Afghan lineage, Ghoris started taking over Ghaznavid cities. In 1180 AD, Ghoris besieged Lahore for the first time but the city was too big for an army of twenty or thirty thousand men. After three years, the invaders came again but failed to capture the city. At last in 1186, the city was taken over by Shahab ud Din Muhammad of Ghor, who left his slave, Qutab-ud-Din Aibak as the governor.
Muhammad Ghori died in 1206 AD without leaving any heir as he only had a daughter who died during his own lifetime. His sudden death sparked a struggle amongst his slaves and elites for the succession culminating in two separate kings. Taj-ud-din Yalduz as Sultan Ghazni and Qutab-ud-Din Aibak was crowned as Sultan at Lahore, before moving to Delhi, also making him the first Muslim King of South Asian territory and officially founding the Delhi sultanate. Qutab-ud-Din Aibak died while playing a horse game called Chowgan (which was later modernised by the British, who would call it ‘polo’), on one of his visits to Lahore in 1210 AD and was thus buried here. Aibak was among the Turks who had embraced Islam and adopted Persian language and culture. They revered the Sufi saints and were generally inclined towards the ‘Hanafi’ school (named after the esteemed Iraqi jurist Imam Abu Hanifa). Under the Sultanate, Hanafi and Sufi teachings gained notable influence in the Indian subcontinent, which continues till today. Revered Sufis such as Hazrat Moinuddin Chishti, Hazrat Bahauddin Zakariya Suhrawardi and Hazrat Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar were from this era.
In 1211 AD, Lahore became the bone of contention between Altamish at Delhi, Nasir-ud-din Kabacha at Multan and Taj-ud-Din Yalduz at Ghazni, Lahore was captured by Yalduz from Kabacha in 1215 but Altamish defeated him in the following year and was master of the city. On the death of Altamish in 1236 CE Malik Ala-ud-Din Sherkhani of Lahore rebelled and was defeated and killed and Lahore was restored to the Sultanate.
In the 13th century, Lahore was laid at the mercy of Mongols. It was taken and plundered by hordes of Gengiz Khan in 1241, and put to ransom in 1246 CE.
The city of Lahore was rebuilt by Ghiyasud Din Balban in 1270 CE but during a battle with Mongols in 1286, Balban’s Prince Muhammad was killed at the banks of river Ravi and famous poet Amir Khusro was also taken as a prisoner by his side.
The Khilji, Tughlaq, Syed and Lodhi dynasties succeeded one another in Delhi till Babar captured it. Lahore is not prominent in political history of these dynasties. In 1397 AD, Timur Lenk also known as “Tamer Lane” plundered Lahore. The city was taken by detachment of his forces. On his departure, Lahore was left in possession of his viceroy Syed Khizr Khan. Mongols (Mughals) colonists took up their abode in the vicinity of the city. The place of their location is still known by the name Mughalpura.
In 1436 AD, the city was seized by Behlol Khan Lodi, one of the Afghan Chiefs, who rose to power on the overthrow of the Tughlaq dynasty and eventually became Emperor. During the reign of his grandson, Ibrahim Khan Lodi, who was an ill-tempered emperor, many of the ‘Umerah’ (nobles) became disgusted at his ill-treatment of them. Exploiting the situation among the ‘Umerah’, Daulat Khan, the Afghan Governor of Lahore, revolted against Ibrahim Lodhi. To get rid of Ibrahim Lodhi, Daulat Khan invited Babar, who was a descendant of Timur and the Mongol warrior Genghis Khan, to invade India.
Mughals-The great builders and Administrators: In 1524, when Babar reached Lahore at the invitation of Daulat Khan, some of the Lodhi’s chieftains who were loyal to Ibrahim Lodhi, encountered Babar’s army, however Babar was successful in spite of the resistance. Babar thought that he was deceived by the Daulat Khan Lodhi and he ordered the city of Lahore to be ransacked and some parts of Lahore were put on fire. Babar did not remain at Lahore for long and after a halt of only four days, marched towards Delhi. The following year, Babur again appeared. An attempt was made to oppose him at Ravi, near Lahore but the force melted away before it was attacked and Babar, without entering Lahore, passed on and in 1526 CE after the decisive victory of Panipat over Afghan army, captured Delhi and founded the Mughal Empire and appointed Mir Younus Ali as governor at Lahore.
After the death of Babur, Humayun took over the reign in 1530 but lost his territories to Sher Shah Suri in 1540. His younger brother Kamran colluded with Sher Shah Suri and took the possession of Lahore and became the ruler of Punjab, Kabul and Kandahar. Lahore served as the military headquarters during the struggle between Humayun and Sher Shah Suri. In 1554 CE, on the death of Sher Shah Suri, Humayun returned victoriously to Lahore, after an exile of fourteen years.
After the death of Humayun at Delhi, in 1556 AD and the succession of Akbar, the peace of Lahore was again messed up. This time by Hakim, the younger brother of Akbar, who seized Lahore but was expelled soon. In 1581 AD, he made another attempt, but the siege was lifted by advance of Akbar in person. From 1584 AD to 1598 AD, Akbar made Lahore his headquarters and undertook the conquest of Kashmir and operations against Afghans.
It was Akbar who first converted Lahore into a city of magnificence. During his reign, he enclosed Lahore with a strong 30 feet high wall. He rebuilt the already existing Fort and enclosed the city with burnt brick wall having 12 prestigious gates.
Emperor Jahangir’s reign commenced with a rebellion in 1606 AD and Lahore felt the effects of it. The eldest son of the emperor, Prince Khosru seized the suburbs of Lahore and laid siege to the citadel. His army was quickly defeated by the imperial troops and his adherents were punished with fearful severity. Jahangir was very fond of Lahore and used to hold court here from 1622-27 AD. He and his wife, Empress Noor Jahan have their tombs at the northwest periphery of Lahore city.
When Jahangir died in 1627 AD, Shah Jahan (Prince Khurram), his favourite son, was in Deccan. Shahr Yar, the son-in-law of Empress Noor Jahan, proclaimed himself as the emperor. Shah Jahan rushed back to Lahore from Deccan, captured Shar Yar and proclaimed himself as the emperor at Lahore in 1628 AD. The emperor held his courts at Lahore during 1628, 1631 and 1635 AD.
Lahore enjoyed peace and prosperity under Hakeem Illum-ud-Din (commonly known as Wazir Khan) and Ali Mardan Khan, Governors of Emperor Shah Jahan from 1628 AD till 1658 AD.
At the death of Shah Jahan in 1658 AD, battle of succession erupted amongst his sons. After being defeated by Aurangzeb, Dara Shikoh marched rapidly Lahore seized royal treasury and started raising the army but his allies deserted him and he was forced to flee towards Multan. However, Dara Shikoh managed to evade capture and Aurangzeb returned triumphantly to Lahore in October 1658. In 1662 AD, the city was damaged by river Ravi. On the orders of Aurangzeb, a massive embankment of brick-work was constructed for about 4 miles along the eastern bank of the river to protect the city. The emperor held his courts in Lahore from 1668-1669 AD and ordered construction of the Badshahi Mosque in 1671 under direction of Muzaffar Hussain (Fida’i Khan Koka), Aurangzeb’s brother-in-law and governor of Lahore.
Soon after Aurangzeb’s death in 1707 AD, Sikhs rose into insurrection. Bahadur Shah Zafar-I and son of Aurangzeb (1712 AD) marched into Lahore to crush the rebellion but died before defeating the militant Sikhs.
Jahandar Shah, the other son of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, took over the reins and appointed Abdul Samad Khan, a Turani nobleman as the Viceroy of Lahore in 1717. Abdul Samad was succeeded in viceroyship by his son Zikariya Khan, under the title of Khan Bahadur.
“Nadir Shah, the King of Persia” captured Lahore in 1738 and the city escaped the horrors of death and destruction because of its astute governor, Zikariya Khan. Nadir Shah was bribed heavily by him, who gave him 20 lakh rupees and a vast array of elephants. Nadir Shah’s successor, Ahmad Shah Abdali finally defeated Mughal governor Mir Mannu at Lahore in 1752 and their famous dialogue took place: “How is it,” said Ahmad Shah, “that you have not, long ere this, come to do homage to your lord and master?” “Because,” replied Mir Mannu, “I had another master to serve.” “And why,” rejoined the Shah sarcastically, “did not your master protect you in this hour of need?” “Because,” replied the other proudly, “he knew that Mir Mannu would take care of himself.” And supposing,” continued the Shah, “you had been victorious?” “I should have put you in an iron cage and sent you prisoner to Delhi,” was the reply, “And now that I am victor, what do you expect at my hands?” “If you are as tradesman,” said Mir Mannu, “sell me; if an executioner, put me to death; but if you are a prince, be generous.” The conqueror, struck with admiration at the dauntless bearing of his youthful adversary, called him the Rustam of India, decorated him a jeweled sword, and confirmed him in the post of Viceroy of the Punjab. But soon after, Mir Mannu died. Thereafter, Lahore became the bone of contention between Sikhs, Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali.
Sikh Interregnum – Lahore Darbar under Ranjit Singh’s Rule: During thirty years 1767-1797 AD, following the departure of Ahmad Shah, the Sikhs were left to themselves and increased in wealth and numbers enabling them to capture Lahore. Lahore was portioned out to three Sikh Chiefs, Lehna Singh, Sobha Singh and Gujjar Singh, known as “Three Hakeems”.
In 1797, Ahmad Shah’s grandson Shah Zaman appeared before Lahore, however, his expedition was short lived and after exacting a subsidy of 30 lakhs. Ranjit Singh, son of one of the chiefs of Sukharchakiyamisls, obtained the formal grant of chief ship of Lahore from the retiring Durrani emperor.
Ranjit Singh became master of Lahore in 1799 after a short struggle with the son of Lehna Singh, in which he was aided by treachery of leading men. In 1801, he assumed the title of Sirkar and commenced his career as a sovereign. In 1802, he obtained the celebrated gun zamzama, which Ahmed Shah Abdali had used in the battle of Panipat. During the Sikh rule, Mughal monuments in Lahore suffered extensively. He also added many cities and towns to his dominions. Ranjit Singh turned the Sarai which separated the Fort and palace from the Badshahi Mosque into a private garden.
The Lahore Fort complex was used by Ranjit Singh as his official court and royal residence as well as barracks, arsenal, and treasury. Ranjit Singh added his own monuments to Lahore’s skyline, heavily borrowing from the Mughal architectural style. One such example is the marble pavilion in Huzuri Bagh located just outside Lahore Fort. Ranjit Singh had this rectangular structure built in 1818 in the traditional Mughal style. It was designed for his personal use as well as for conducting official business during the hot summer months. The building is also referred to as Ranjit Singh’s Baradari. Few un-sightly monuments were erected in honour of a favourite wife or a dancing girl, along with some additions in the Lahore Fort that lacked aesthetics.
In addition to enlarging his kingdom, Ranjit Singh also acquired the famous Mughal diamond, Koh-i-Noor (‘Mountain of Light’ in Farsi and Urdu) from Shah Shuja (1786-1842), an Afghan noble who was a descendant of Abdali. It was Abdali’s predecessor, Nadir Shah, who had seized the famous diamond from the Mughals. In the intervening period between the loss of the Mughal authority over Lahore and start of Ranjit Singh’s rule, Lahore and its Mughal monuments fell into ruin. A British officer on a diplomatic mission to Ranjit Singh in 1809 observed that the city of Lahore was “a melancholy picture of fallen splendour. Here the lofty dwellings and masajid (mosques), which fifty years ago raised their tops to the skies and were the pride of a busy and active population, are now crumbling into dust.”
Modern Lahore of British Raj: The death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, the ensuing civil war, and a scramble for power (1839-49) amongst his successors destroyed the city of Lahore. Even before Ranjit Singh took power the city had lost its splendor achieved during the Mughal rule (1526-1857). After its annexation by the British, in 1849 following the Anglo-Sikh battle of Chillianwala near Gujrat, Lahore emerged as a colonial city. The Lahore emerging under British rule became the site of colonial desire. After the British took control of the city of Lahore, pre-colonial paradigms of history, sociology, architecture, and demography receded in the background. Lahore’s transformation from a medieval city into a modern British city was phenomenal.
After its annexation in 1849, Lahore transformed from being a capital city of the Ranjit Singh’s kingdom to a provincial headquarter of the province of the Punjab under the British rule. Immediately after its annexation, the British set a Board of Administration consisting of three members, Sir Henry Lawrence, his brother Lord Lawrence and Sir Robert Montgomery. “The functions of the board were divided into Political, Revenue and Judicial, and the members had each special charge of one of these departments, though all worked jointly when any question of more than ordinary importance arose.” This was the first administrative step the British took to develop the city in accordance with their imagination of a colonial city. In 1853, the office of Chief Commissioner was introduced which was later on replaced by institution of office of Lieutenant Governor in 1859.
The initiative of the British in the area of educational and religious culture, the setting up of educational and church schools was an integral part of their colonial strategy. Missionary education has always been used for social and cultural control. Slowly but steadily, the colonial education system in Lahore produced a class of Lahoris, who despite being scions of the city adopted English culture. They were the product of educational institutions such as Chiefs’ College (Aitchison College) and other missionary educational institutions in Lahore.
Architecture was the domain in which colonial desire of re-shaping the city was strongly manifested. In Lahore, new buildings with new material were constructed. These buildings included hospitals, prisons, penitentiaries, lunatic asylums, colleges, hotels, cinema halls, universities, courthouses, and clubs. Streets and roads in Lahore were constructed using new material and were given new names. They built for themselves a new town to the south and south east of the walled city, known as Civil Lines. Here, a new kind of residential house appeared called bungalow, separated from its surrounding houses by green grassy belts and hedges.
In time, the Indian officials and professionals also began to live in the Civil Lines. A boulevard lined with trees known as the Mall was constructed which became the spine of the Civil Lines. The Lahoris began to call it the thandi sarak because of its greenery and spaciousness. Along this artery were constructed most of the new buildings of the British administration, the Government House (1849) the High Court (1889) Central Telegraph Office (1880) the University Hall (1876) the General Post Office (1912). These buildings are not only monuments commemorating the arrival of the new ruling class, but also symbols of social institutions and practices that British brought with themselves. The British government also built railways, introduced public transport, and established schools, hospitals and other buildings for public use. The construction and structural design of the buildings used as offices and residential areas indicate the fact that in case of another mutiny or armed uprising of the natives such buildings could be used as citadels. They felt secured in such edifices. Lahore, therefore, began to give the look of a colonial city. The architectural design of the Lahore Railway Station is one such example.
Englishmen inhabiting this new and modern Lahore added a new dimension to the life of the city. Their palatial residences gave Lahore a true colonial appearance and form by adding an English impulse to an Indian landscape, a space already possessed by the Muslims, the Hindus and the Sikhs. The amalgamation of the similar and the dissimilar added a new dimension to the city of Lahore. Lahore had become a city where the colonizer and the colonized inhabited two diametrically opposite worlds and at the same time, these two different worlds came together and met at the fringes to form a new cultural and religious ethos, a new society, and a new city.